Fatherhood

Questions:
1. According to Joseph Pleck, how did the role of fathers change in the United States over time? What are the expectations about fatherhood today, both according to the article and based on your own observations?
2. According to Francine Deutsch, why do couples with children decide to work alternating shifts, and how is that decision related to their social class status? How does these families' division of labor compare to their gender ideologies? Would you select an alternating shift arrangement for your family?
3. According to Dorothy Roberts, what are the societal forces that discourage family participation of Black fathers? What elements of Black fatherhood led to the creation of the myth of the Absent Black Father, and what patterns of Black men’s behavior contradict this myth?


According to Pleck, the role of fathers has changed from being a moral overseer, to a distant breadwinner, to a sex role model, and currently, it is a combination of all of these. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, fathers were seen as having much more responsibility and influence over there children than mothers. They were expected to proved a source of moral teaching and worldly judgements, and educate them on what God and the world expect of them. If they were literate themselves, they would teach reading and writing as well, and would guide sons into an occupational calling. Fathers also approved matches for both his sons and daughers, and allotted them family property. Women were seen as weak when it came to reason and tended to indulge their children and show too much affection, so fathers were expected to supervise them, restrain their inherent sinful urges, and encourage development of reason. Fathers replaced love, affection, and anger with approval and disapproval. The early nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries saw an increase in the importance of the role of mothers with the new gender ideology. Women's purity elevated them above men, making her better suited for raising children (353). Infancy and early childhood recieved greater emphasis, and others were thought to have special influence during that time, whereas in the past the emphasis was on the fathers role during the school-age years. In addition, with the onset of industrialization, fathers worked away from home for the first time, resulting in less time spent with his children. Fathers were beginning to be seen as breadwinners, providing money for consumption and security. They were seen as a "final authority", only stepping in when the mother's authority failed. From 1940-1965, a new perception of fatherhood appeared. As the idea of an absent father came about with the onset of World War II, the importance of a male figure in a child's life became apparent. While some fathers were actually gone during and after the war, some were physically there but were weak and passive. Studies showed that fathers were important sex role models. Boys struggled to develop a masculine identity without a father figure as a result of their initial identification with their mother. Fathers were also seen as essential for the sex role development of their daughters (357). Paternal involvement drew a glear distinction between maternal and paternal roles. Today, the sex role model of fatherhood is a secondary counterpoint to the dominant father-breadwinner role. Today, fathers are much more involved in their childrens lives however, generally, they are present at childbirth, involved with them when their infants as well as throughout their lives, participates in childcare, and is involved with his daughters as much as his sons. Based on my own observations, the father generally is the primary breadwinner of the family, but is much more involved in children's lives than he was in the past. It is acceptable for fathers to show affection and indulge them as mothers do, and also contribute greatly to character development and education as well. It seems to me that maternal and paternal roles have gradually become very similar over the years.

According to Deutsch, couples who work blue collar jobs who have children choose to work alternating shifts primarily because of money. It is cheaper for both of them to work and work different shifts that it is to pay for child care. Many couldn't afford it at all, others could have but believed it was economically unwise to do so. By avoiding paying for child care they could provide a more comfortable life for their family, take vacations, and possibly send the kids to college in the future. Another reason they alternate shifts is because they don't want other people raising their children. Many believed children should be cared for only by family. They saw it as their duty to instill their morals and values into the children. Others don't want strangers caring for their children, because they never know what is going on when they're gone and have heard horror stories about babysitters. This has to do with their social class becuase it is neccessary for both parents to work in order to support the family. Also, since blue collar families have less money, the child care that they paid for could be worse than that of the middle class. Third, they if the family could afford the "best" day care, they might suffer from a relative lack of control, in that that day care migth reflect middle-class values and be less responsive to their concerns than to the concerns of middle-class couples (119). There would also be a loss of time together. The divisions of labor in couples who alternate don't change these family's gender ideologies, they merely allow both the male and female to expand their roles. The wife may work, but neither she nor her husband ever considers her the primary breadwinner. when she works outside the home, she is helping because her husband cannot provide financially. In the same way, when a father helps out at home, he does it because his wife is not there. They define their role as "mothers-helpers". Mothers don't identify with work and breadwinning as much as fathers do. The father is more emotionally involved with his children, but the mother is still considered the emotional center of the family. If i had to, I would select an alternating shift arrangement for my family. Under the circumstances, it would be better that both me and my husband got to spend time with and take care of the children than having one parent stay home while the other works all day and never sees their family. At the same time though it would be hard sacrificing time spent with my spouse. Its definately the best way to raise children under the financial constraints, as it provides more money for the family as well as more time spent with the children for each parent.

According to Roberts, the societal forces that discourage family participation of Black fathers are the emphasis on the Black "matriarchal" family that suggests that fatherlessness is a symptom of rebellious Black mothering (147). In this effect, there is little faith that Black fathers can have any positive affect on their children, and could never be suitable mentors for them. Black men are depicted today as gangster rappers, hustlers, rapists, gang bangers, drug dealers, and crack heads, an dmore generally, hypersexual and violent. He is someone to be disciplined, not someone who should be given power or respect (148). White Americans tend to emphasize the negative aspects of fatherlessness in Black communities rather than the positive potential of fatherhood. The effects of racial repression, especially high rates of unemployment and incaceration, led to the creation of the myth of the Absent Black Father. Chronic poverty is not conducive to forming and maintaining stable marriages, and Black men's unemployment rates are more than double those of White men (149-150). If their economic status was improved, it would increase the number of Black men who lived with their children. In addition, Black fathers are also kept from their families through imprisonment. Over half of the one million inmates in American jails are Black men. This is a result of the disproportionate poverty and desperation in Black communities, and also because some federal and state sentencing policies are tougher on Black drug offenders (150). Unlike white women, black women were always expected to find a job outside of the home, and this devalues Black men as the breadwinner/ideal father. However, it is often overlooked that Black men actually stay closely tied to their children even when they are not married to the mother or able to provide financial support. One study showed that absent Black fathers actually had more contact with their children and gave them more support than did White absent fathers. In addition, more male mentoring is provided by grandfathers, uncles, older brothers, church elders, and neighbors within Black communities.